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Shorter chains, on the other hand, provide higher sensitivities but are more soluble and tend to present pinholes that facilitate non-specific interactions. In summary, the most suitable spacer for each application can only be found by experiment. In the case of silicon surfaces, covalent attachment of functional spacers by silanization is straightforward. It is performed by vapour deposition of the silane over the surface in a vacuum chamber to avoid polymerization and multilayer deposition of the silanes.
Another source for CPE behaviour can be found in the molecular adsorption of charged molecules on the electrode surface, which produces irregularities and inhomogeneities in counter ions concentration within the EDL. The modification of electrodes using porous material such as membranes and polymers that act as selective membranes or protect the electrode against medium aggressions also results in the appearance of constant phase elements. 151,152 At higher frequencies the EDL impedance becomes lower than that of the solution, and the spectrum is mainly controlled by the electrical properties of the latter, mainly the solution resistance, Rs.
151,152 At higher frequencies the EDL impedance becomes lower than that of the solution, and the spectrum is mainly controlled by the electrical properties of the latter, mainly the solution resistance, Rs. As the EDL capacitor value is related to the electrode area, the transition between the frequency range controlled by the EDL and the frequency range controlled by the medium solution also depends on the electrode area. Consequently, for large area electrodes the solution electrical properties control the spectrum over a wide frequency range.
